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Evolution and Interpretation of Government Power
Political voting in America has declined today since the level of elite and mass political behavior changed. However, this has not always been the case in American politics. For most of the voters, the physical sense of casting a ballot was the juncture of an extended period of campaign activity. Election Day was a day of excitement during which American voters participated in countless political meetings, parades, and bonfires. The American sense of public-minded self-government emerged when people felt dominated by government officials.
In that epoch, voting was openly defended while placing a premium on the practice of independent citizenship. This sense of independence implied the right to serve in the militia with a consequence of the corollary of ‘voting alone’ in the military service deep-rooted in the public’s mind. In 1791, criticism began on the national government’s prolonged debates over the whole question of exemptions from military service (Cultice 17). This practice, if adopted, would mean that apprentices and miners should be debarred from the privilege of bearing arms in defense of their country.
The selection of officers was conducted as it had been done during the American Revolution, and various governors were induced to appoint those who would do well in the next election. The importance of elections outweighed all other considerations to such an extent that the rulers succeeded in forcing the government to let the military men get back home to vote. However, a common person at that time felt alone in the voting booth, for the army and officials were engaged in a war.
Works Cited
Cultice, Wendel W. Youth’s Battle for the Ballot: A History of Voting Age in America.
Greenwood Press, 1992.
Goebel, Thomas. A Government by the People: Direct Democracy in America, 1890-
1940. U of North Carolina P, 2002.
Keynes, Edward, and Randall Miller. The Court vs. Congress: Prayer, Busing, and
Abortion. Duke UP, 1989.
Lees, John David, et al. American Politics Today. Manchester UP, 1985.
Libey, David Menefee. The Triumph of Campaign-centered Politics. CQ Press, 1996.
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Symbolism in A Clean, Well-Lighted Place by Ernest Hemingway
A Clean, Well-Lighted Place is a short story written by Ernest Hemingway and published in 1933. Like all Hemingway’s works, this story about different attitudes towards life is full of deep symbolic meaning. The most significant symbols of the short story are the cafe where the action takes place and its illumination: they are both connected with the main topic which is meaninglessness of life.
The short story begins with the description of the café lighting: the light of electric lamps and the foliage of a tree create an unusual play of light and shadow. The author manages to create the atmosphere of the café using only one sentence. A Clean, Well-Lighted Place is probably Hemingway’s favorite short story (Deepa 19). He uses his main technic – symbols and subtext – in this work. The first character that the reader meets in the text is a small cafe where the action takes place. It is open late at night, there are practically no visitors, but from the author’s point of view, it can reflect the whole world. The example of a young and an old waiter shows two generations with opposite attitudes towards life. Many human destinies pass by them: a bartender, bystanders and an elderly man. The cafe functions as a separate society, on the example of which different human characters, compassion for people and indifference to them, are shown.
The next important symbol in this story is light, both solar and artificial. One of the characters emphasizes a significant point: this café is different from bars and pubs. The reason why Hemingway chooses a small cafe as an example of a safe place for a lonely person at night is in its main characteristics: illumination and cleanness.
Works Cited
Deepa, Muthu M. “The Delineation of Despair through the Old Man and the Old Waiter in A
Clean Well-Lighted Place: Ernest Hemingway”. Literary Herald, vol. 3, no. 6, 2018,
pp.17-20.
Koseman, Zennure. “The Death of the Profound Natural Aesthetics in the Garden in Ernest
Hemingway’s “The End of Something”. Song of Death in Paradise. Death and Garden Narratives in Literature, Art and Film: An Anthology, edited by Sabine Planka and Feryal Cubukcu, Lexington Books, pp. 25-37.
Maliha, Humyra Anjum. “American Modern Society and Young Generation with Reference to “A Clean, Well-Lighted Place”. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, vol.11, no. 11, 2020, pp. 376-377.
McParland, Robert. Philosophy and Literary Modernism. Cambrige Scholars Publishing, 2018.
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Roger Malvin’s Burial, a short story by Nathaniel Hawthorne, is about a young man named Reuben who escapes from a battle with his girlfriend’s wounded father. They try to make their way to a settlement, but the old man, Roger Malvin, is too injured to survive the trip. He tells his companion to leave him to die in the woods. Reuben is reluctant and at first refuses, but finally he concedes. He is instructed to marry the man’s daughter, tell her about his death, and return with her to give him a proper burial (Hawthorne, 2015). However, Reuben is wracked with a guilt. This paper is to study how guilt and judgement can influence a person’s life.
When the main character gets back home, he does not tell of his abandoning the old man, but rather states that he was killed in the battle. He is, however, filled with shame for not honoring the old man’s wishes. It consequently turns him into a man of harsh temper and a hard countenance. He begets a son named Cyrus with his wife Dorcas Malvin. He inherits the old man’s farm and becomes successful, but his fortunes are later reversed. He and his family depart to start afresh elsewhere, but they arrive at the place of his father-in-law’s death, and there he accidentally shoots his son.
Ironically, while he regrets the loss of his son, he feels that the burden of his guilt has finally been lifted and that his sin of not fulfilling the wishes of the dead has been purged. Two of the major themes in the short story are guilt and regret. The author is particularly successful in bringing these out through Reuben, who engenders the bitter consequences of having to live a lie.
Reference
Hawthorne, N. (2015). Roger Malvin’s Burial. New York, NY: Booklassic.
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Essential Elements of a Contract
A contract is an agreement – written or spoken – usually made upon sales, employment, or leasing, which is enforced by law. According to Blokhina Gilkis (2019), there are several elements making an agreement a legally enforceable document. These include a mutual agreement delineated by an offer from the one side and acceptance from the other; the act of consideration; the capacity of a person; and legality of purpose. However, it is acceptable to have the elements substituted by valid equivalents depending on the state.
Contracts have to start with an offer, which expresses one’s willingness to negotiate a contract under particular terms. In its turn, acceptance by the other party is an agreement to all of the contract’s terms. Acceptance has to be unequivocally expressed to the person who makes the offer (“Elements of a contract,” n.d.). Furthermore, consideration is merely each parties’ act of exchanging valuable assets to their detriment with provided consideration from both of them. When it comes to capacity and legality, it seems reasonable to turn to the laws of the state of Texas in order to explore the statutory requirements.
Enforcing Contracts in the State of Texas
First of all, it is to be noted that Texan laws do not substantially differ from those stated above. “A Guide to Texas Law” (n.d.) enumerates offer, acceptance, and consideration as essential elements of a contract and then proceeds to name defenses to contract, among which are the legality of the act and capacity of the parties. The comment on legality points out that even if two people have exchanged offer and acceptance and provided their consideration, but the contract’s subject matter is illegal, the contract’s validity is infringed, and, therefore, the contract is non-existent. The paragraph on the capacity of the parties explains that all of them have to be competent in order to make a legal agreement – usually, not underage, mentally disabled, or inebriated. Other defenses to
contract, according to “A Guide to Texas Law” (n.d.), include mistake, duress, and fraud. Additionally, one more peculiarity is stated on the Houston Bar Association website. According to Houston Bar Association (2020), a contract does not have to be in writing – however, it is recommended to be since there are particular types of contracts that are required to be in written form to be enforced. One never knows, so it is advisable to write everything down to be on the safe side.
References
Blokhina Gilkis, K. (2019). Contract. Legal Information Institute. https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/contract
Elements of a contract. (n.d.). OER Services. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-monroe- law101/chapter/elements-of-a-contract/
Guide to Texas law. (n.d). [PDF document]. https://www.thetaylorfirm.com/pdf/texascontractlaw.pdf
Houston Bar Association. (2020). Understanding contracts (Houston Bar Association). Texas Law Help. https://texaslawhelp.org/article/understanding-contracts-houston-bar-association
Why World War I Lasted Until November 1918?
World War I was expected to be short and quick; however, it lasted for four years. Although there were many factors contributing to the duration of the war, one of the prime reasons was the failure of the Schlieffen Plan. The mentioned plan was devised by Germans with the aim to quickly capture and conquer France on the western front in order to be able to regroup and strike Russians in the east.
The Schlieffen plan was a preplanned military operation with the help of which Germans wanted to win the war on both fronts with the element of surprise and speed. In practice, “the Schlieffen plan was worked out for war on the Western front only; for when drawn up, Russia was still very weak as a result of the Manchurian War. It also contemplated additions to the army that did not take place” (“The Schlieffen Plan” para. 6). In other words, the first half of the plan worked as planned since France was indeed conquered rather quickly. However, soon, the plan lost its relevance as pointed out by memo response, where it is stated, “the important thing is to keep our flexibility, not lock into a Schlieffen Plan at this particular point in time” (“Richard Nixon Presidential Library” 29). Several challenges emerged, which delayed the plan’s realization on the eastern front. The lagging of the plan implementation led to the downfall of Germany.
In conclusion, World War I was expected to keep on for a short period but lasted until November 1918 primarily due to the failure of the Schlieffen plan. Germans expected to win the war on both fronts by attacking France with quick succession and regrouping to face the Russians. However, only the first part of the plan worked as expected, whereas the emergence of a series of delays and challenges led to the failure of the prepared arrangement.
Alfred Bandura’s Social Learning Theory and Its Implications for Substance Use Disorder Treatment
In the contemporary therapeutic approaches to substance use treatment, specialists and scholars vastly generate and apply multiple psychological theories that inform evidence- based decisions for beneficial patient outcomes. Commonly, substance abuse has been viewed as a behavioral disorder attributed to the development of addiction to a substance through repetitive actions.
However, Albert Bandura’s theory of social learning has introduced a new perspective on this issue, claiming that addiction, like any other behavior, results from social influence on an individual. In other words, people acquire particular behavioral patterns and response mechanisms by observing others in their environment. Such a process is defined as a reciprocal determinism where interrelated and interdependent personal characteristics, environment, and behavior are interrelated and interdependent. Given a high level of social involvement of addicted individuals, the social learning theory explains the causes of substance abuse and finds effective treatment solutions. Thus, this paper aims to outline the premises of the social learning theory proposed by Alfred Bandura, overview its explanation of addiction, and explore treatment options using the concepts of the theory.
Premises of the Social Learning Theory
The introduction of the social learning theory to psychology was a pivotal point in transitioning from behavioral psychology to the cognitive approach to human development inquiry. Developed by Alfred Bandura in the 1970-s, the social learning theory suggested that people learn their behavior not only from direct experiences but also from observing other people’s behavior that serves as modeling (Bandura & Walters, 1977).
An important role in the process of behavioral pattern acquisitions is played by stimuli and the mode of perception of the stimuli, and the observation of the antecedents of one’s responses to the stimuli.As articulated by Bandura and Walters (1977), the theory assumes that “modeling influences produce learning principally through their informative functions and that observers acquire mainly symbolic representations of modeled activities rather than specific stimulus- response associations” (p. 6).
The social learning model starts with an anticipated stimulus, which is followed by attention, and a modeling stimulus, which ultimately leads to symbolic coding, cognitive organization, and rehearsal to finally form a behavioral response (Bandura & Walters, 1977). The model is demonstrated in Figure 1 and implies a close dependence between observation and ultimate response in the form of behavior
References
Barton, J., & Henderson, J. (2016). Peer support and youth recovery: A brief review of the theoretical underpinnings and evidence. Canadian Journal of Family and Youth/Le Journal Canadien de Famille et de la Jeunesse, 8(1), 1-17.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1977). Social learning theory (Vol. 1). Prentice Hall: Englewood cliffs.
Smith, M. A. (2020). Social learning and addiction. Behavioural Brain Research, 398,
112954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112954.
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Outline
Introduction
Qualitative Research Methods
Observation
Survey
Focus Group
Delphi Method
Quantitative Research Methods a. Scaling
b. ContentAnalysis
c. Experiment
Conclusion
Review of Different Research Methods
The development of research methodology is carried out in accordance with the logic of scientific study. This approach involves a set of theoretical and empirical methods the combination of which makes it possible to study complex and multifunctional objects using reliable and valid techniques. The application of various methods gives the researcher an opportunity to study the problem comprehensively including its aspects and parameters. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the key features of main research methods used within qualitative and quantitative study designs.
Qualitative Research Methods
Qualitative research methods allow the investigator to collect and analyze detailed information about the subject of research (for instance, about inclinations, internal motives, values, preferences, and so on). They provide the researcher with a more comprehensive understanding of ongoing processes, contribute to the identification of patterns of behavior, and give an opportunity to determine the cause of the phenomenon or reaction (Sekaran and Bougie, 2016). Consequently, this category of methods is aimed at studying the widest possible range of opinions. The main characteristics of qualitative research are the collection of information in a free form and its focus on understanding and interpreting the data obtained so that the investigator can formulate hypotheses and productive ideas.
It is crucial that no single universal method that can provide objective information. It is necessary to use comprehensive methodology that will include several complementary methods (Sekaran and Bougie, 2016). The expediency of a particular methodology depends on the content of the problem under analysis, the degree of its development, and the resources available to the researcher.
Observation
Observation is one of the most commonly used methods. It implies a purposeful perception of the phenomenon due to which the researcher can receive factual evidence. During all observations, the researcher should have a protocol in which the main objects will be pre-selected (Sekaran and Bougie, 2016). The method of observation can be controlled and uncontrolled. In the first case, the researcher becomes a member of the group in which the observation is being conducted; in the second case, he or she is detached, conducts a hidden or selective observation. According to statistics, this method is often used since it is quite feasible, but it has a particular weakness related to the fact that the investigator conducts observation under the influence of personal characteristics (Sekaran and Bougie, 2016). The researcher can achieve objectivity by applying the method of triangulation to validate the findings.
Survey
The survey method is divided into several subcategories, which are conversation, interviews, and questionnaires. A conversation can be either a self-contained method or an additional one. It is used to receive an explanation when some indicator or factor was not clear enough (for example, during observation). The conversation is held in a free form based on the list of questions; the interviewee’s answers are not recorded (Bryman, 2015). When interviewing, the researcher asks questions in a certain sequence and writes down the answers. An interview can be direct or indirect (for instance, over the phone) (Bryman, 2015).
Reference list
Bryman, A. (2015) Social research methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cohen, L., Manion, l. and Morrison, K. (2013) Research methods in education. London: Routledge.
Denicolo, P., Long, T. and Bradley-Cole, K. (2016) Constructivist approaches and research methods: a practical guide to exploring personal meanings. Thousand Oaks: SAGE.
Sekaran, U. and Bougie, R. (2016) Research methods for business: a skill building approach. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
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